District of Columbia
November 17, 1800 to Present
The U.S. Capitol: A Symbol of Resilience and Renewal
The U.S. Capitol, located at the eastern end of the National
Mall in Washington, D.C., occupies a commanding position on a plateau nearly 90
feet above the Potomac River. From its perch, it offers sweeping westward
views, aligning with the Capitol Reflecting Pool, the Washington Monument, and
the Lincoln Memorial, creating a symbolic axis of American democracy and
governance.
Establishing the Nation's Capital
The decision to locate the federal capital along the Potomac
River was born of intense negotiation and compromise. Article I, Section 8 of
the Constitution granted Congress legislative authority over a federal district
“not exceeding ten Miles square” that would serve as the permanent seat of
government. Treasury Secretary Alexander Hamilton brokered a compromise between
Northern and Southern states, persuading the latter to support federal
assumption of Revolutionary War debts in exchange for locating the capital in
the South [1].
In 1788, Maryland ceded a portion of its land for the district, followed by Virginia in 1789. President George Washington selected the final site in 1791 under the provisions of the 1790 Residence Act. Pierre Charles L’Enfant, a French engineer inspired by the grandeur of Versailles, was tasked with designing the city. L’Enfant envisioned a layout of intersecting grids and sweeping avenues radiating from focal points like the Capitol, which he described as “a pedestal waiting for a monument” [2].
 |
A view of the Thorton Capitol of Washington by William Russell Birch (1755-1834) before it was burnt down by the British. Image is from Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division |
The Thorton Capitol: The Beginnings of an Icon
The first Capitol building, designed by Dr. William
Thornton, reflected the neoclassical ideals of the era. Thornton, an amateur
architect, was awarded $500 and a plot of land for his design, which President
Washington approved in 1793. Though Thornton's plans were never fully realized,
they laid the groundwork for the Capitol’s aesthetic and structural
aspirations. Thornton described the west façade as embodying “the magnificence
of a Roman temple,” a sentiment reinforced by his proposal for a monumental staircase
descending toward the Mall [3].
 |
British Invasion and the Burning of the Capitol
On August 24, 1814, during the War of 1812, British forces
marched into Washington, D.C., following their victory at the Battle of
Bladensburg. The invaders set fire to key government buildings, including the
Capitol. The destruction was a retaliatory act for the American burning of York
(modern-day Toronto) the previous year. At the time, the Capitol consisted of
two wings connected by a temporary wooden passage [5].
The damage to the Capitol was extensive but not total. Architect Benjamin Henry Latrobe, who had incorporated fire-resistant materials such as sheet iron, marble, and sandstone, helped preserve much of the structure. However, the British specifically targeted the principal rooms:
- The House Chamber (now National Statuary Hall): British troops created a massive bonfire using furniture coated with gunpowder paste. The resulting heat melted glass skylights and destroyed Giuseppe Franzoni’s marble statue of Liberty.
- The Library of Congress: Housing over 3,000 books, the library was used as fuel for the flames, causing severe damage to the room and threatening the building’s exterior walls.
- The Senate Chamber: Flames spread from the library, wreaking havoc on its art and architecture.
- The Supreme Court Chamber: Located on the first floor of the north wing, this chamber was similarly damaged by an inferno of piled furniture [6].
French Minister Louis Sérurier, observing the flames from his residence, remarked, “I have never beheld a spectacle more terrible and at the same time more magnificent” [7].
 |
The Thorton Capitol after burning by the British, by George Munger, 1814 |
Aftermath and Rebuilding
The destruction of the Capitol sparked debate over whether
the federal government should remain in Washington or relocate to a more
established city like Philadelphia. Ultimately, the decision to rebuild
prevailed, driven by the symbolic importance of Washington, D.C., as the
nation’s capital. Latrobe and later architect Charles Bulfinch spearheaded
reconstruction efforts, incorporating both restoration and new design elements.
Congress resumed its sessions in makeshift spaces until the Capitol’s north and
south wings were restored.
 |
Blodgett’s Hotel, at Seventh and E Streets Northwest, never served its intended purpose as a guesthouse. Congress authorized the purchase of the unfinished building in 1810 for federal offices and used it as temporary quarters in 1814 after the Capitol was burned. |
The resilience of the Capitol, even in the face of destruction, became a powerful symbol of the nation’s endurance. Today, remnants of the original sandstone structure that survived the fire are visible, offering a tangible connection to the building’s tumultuous history. Visitors can observe Latrobe’s surviving "corn cob" columns and Corinthian capitals in the Capitol, reminders of an era when the United States weathered both external and internal challenges to emerge stronger [8].
Rebuilding and Expanding the U.S. Capitol: A Testament to
Resilience
 |
| Brick Capitol, photograph by Matthew Brady, Circa 1865 |
After the Burning: Proposals to Relocate the Capital
Following the British burning of the Capitol during the War
of 1812, there was considerable debate over whether the nation’s capital should
remain in Washington, D.C. Several resolutions were introduced in Congress
advocating for the relocation of the capital to a site north of the Mason-Dixon
Line. This reflected growing concerns over Washington's vulnerability to
foreign attack and its perceived inadequacies as a political and commercial hub
[9].
Fearful that the political momentum for relocation might
succeed, Washington’s business community took decisive action. They financed
the construction of the "Old Brick Capitol," a simple yet functional
structure intended to house Congress while the damaged Capitol was rebuilt.
Construction began quickly, and Congress convened in the Brick Capitol from
December 1815 to March 1819 [10]. The building not only served as a temporary
legislative chamber but also symbolized Washington’s determination to retain its
status as the nation’s capital. Later, the Brick Capitol found other uses,
serving as a school and as a military prison during the Civil War [11].
 |
The earliest known photographic image of the U.S. Capitol, taken in 1846. credit: Library of Congress; photo by John Plumbe. |
Benjamin Henry Latrobe’s Contributions to the Rebuilding
Effort
To restore the Capitol after the fires of 1814, Congress
rehired Benjamin Henry Latrobe, who had previously served as Surveyor of Public
Buildings. Latrobe’s new contract, signed on April 18, 1815, tasked him
exclusively with rebuilding the Capitol. His tenure, lasting until November 20,
1817, left a lasting imprint on American neoclassical architecture. Among his
crowning achievements were the interiors of:
- The
Hall of the House of Representatives (now National Statuary Hall):
Latrobe redesigned this grand space with innovative use of acoustics and
ornamentation, incorporating symbolic elements that reflected the young
nation’s ideals.
- The
Old Senate Chamber: This chamber became an iconic example of
neoclassical design, blending elegance and functionality.
- The
Old Supreme Court Chamber: Latrobe’s work here established a dignified
setting for the judiciary, underscoring its growing importance in American
governance [12].
Latrobe’s contributions solidified his reputation as the
"second Architect of the Capitol" and provided the foundation for
subsequent expansions and restorations.
|
The earliest known photographic image of the U.S. Capitol, taken in 1846. credit: Library of Congress; photo by John Plumbe. |
The Second Dome: An Icon of National Unity
The U.S. Capitol’s iconic cast-iron dome, which now defines
the building's silhouette, was not part of the original structure. The earlier
dome, constructed of wood, was removed in 1855 due to concerns over fire
hazards. Thomas U. Walter, the architect responsible for the Capitol’s
mid-19th-century extension, designed the replacement dome. Inspired by
classical European domes, Walter envisioned a grand structure that would crown
the Capitol and symbolize the strength and unity of the United States [13].
The new dome incorporated advanced engineering techniques:
- Construction Details: The dome’s structure relied on iron brackets embedded in five million pounds of brickwork to support an outer ring of 36 iron columns, one for each state in the Union at the time. Thirty-six curving iron trusses rose to the lantern, supporting both the inner dome and the outer shell [14].
- Contract and Construction: Work began in 1855, and in 1860, the New York firm Janes, Fowler, Kirtland & Company secured the contract to complete the dome. Despite the outbreak of the Civil War, the contractors continued their work without guaranteed payment, inspired by President Lincoln’s vision of the dome as a symbol of the nation’s perseverance [15].
- Completion and Costs: The final section of the dome’s crowning feature, the Statue of Freedom, was installed on December 2, 1863. The interior of the dome was completed in 1866 at a total cost of $1,047,291 [16].
Post-Civil War Improvements and Modernization
Since the completion of the dome, the Capitol has undergone
numerous updates and expansions to meet the needs of a growing nation:
- Capitol Grounds: In the late 19th century, Frederick Law Olmsted, the renowned landscape architect, designed the Capitol’s grounds. Olmsted’s plan introduced terraces, pathways, and plantings that enhanced the building’s setting and created a seamless connection with the National Mall [17].
- East Front Extension: In the 1950s, the East Front of the Capitol was extended to create additional office space and improve the structure’s symmetry. This project preserved the original sandstone façade by encasing it within new marble walls [18].
- Restoration of Historic Interiors: Ongoing preservation efforts have restored historic spaces like the Old Senate Chamber and National Statuary Hall, ensuring their architectural and historical integrity [19].
- The Capitol Visitor Center: Opened in 2008, this underground complex provides enhanced security and accessibility for visitors while preserving the Capitol’s exterior appearance. The center includes exhibits on the history of the Capitol and the legislative process [20].
Conclusion: A Symbol of National Endurance
From its near-destruction in 1814 to its modern expansions, the U.S. Capitol has stood as a testament to the resilience and adaptability of the American spirit. The debates over its reconstruction and the eventual decision to remain in Washington reinforced its symbolic importance as the heart of the nation’s democratic government. The construction of the Brick Capitol demonstrated the determination of Washingtonians to preserve their city’s status, while the completion of the grand cast-iron dome during the Civil War became a powerful symbol of national unity. Today, the Capitol continues to evolve, embodying the enduring principles of democracy and reflecting the ever-changing needs of the American people.
Footnotes
1.
U.S. Constitution, Article I, Section 8;
Residence Act, 1790.
2.
Pierre Charles L’Enfant, quoted in Architect
of the Capitol, "Capitol History."
3.
Architect of the Capitol, "William
Thornton’s Design for the Capitol."
4.
Varnum Lansing Collins, The Continental
Congress at Princeton.
5.
Architect of the Capitol, "The
Burning of Washington, 1814."
6.
Ibid.
7.
Louis Sérurier, quoted in Architect of the
Capitol, "The Burning of Washington, 1814."
8.
Architect of the Capitol, "Surviving
Features of the Original Capitol."
9.
Congressional Resolutions on Relocation of the
Capital, 1815.
10. The
Old Brick Capitol: A Temporary Seat of Congress, U.S. Capitol Historical
Society.
11. Ibid.
12. Architect
of the Capitol, "Benjamin Henry Latrobe’s Contributions."
13. Architect
of the Capitol, "The Dome: A Symbol of Unity."
14. Ibid.
15. Ibid.
16. Ibid.
17. Frederick
Law Olmsted and the Capitol Grounds, U.S. Capitol Historical Society.
18. The
Capitol East Front Extension: Balancing Preservation and Progress, Library
of Congress.
19. Historic
Interiors of the U.S. Capitol, Architect of the Capitol.
20. The
Capitol Visitor Center: Enhancing the Visitor Experience, Architect of the
Capitol.
For students and teachers of U.S. history, this video features Stanley and Christopher Klos presenting America's Four United Republics Curriculum at the University of Pennsylvania's Wharton School. Filmed in December 2015, this video is an informal recording by an audience member capturing a presentation attended by approximately 200 students, professors, and guests. To explore the full curriculum, [download it here].
September 5, 1774 | October 22, 1774 | |
October 22, 1774 | October 26, 1774 | |
May 20, 1775 | May 24, 1775 | |
May 25, 1775 | July 1, 1776 |
July 2, 1776 to February 28, 1781
July 2, 1776 | October 29, 1777 | |
November 1, 1777 | December 9, 1778 | |
December 10, 1778 | September 28, 1779 | |
September 29, 1779 | February 28, 1781 |
March 1, 1781 to March 3, 1789
March 1, 1781 | July 6, 1781 | |
July 10, 1781 | Declined Office | |
July 10, 1781 | November 4, 1781 | |
November 5, 1781 | November 3, 1782 | |
November 4, 1782 | November 2, 1783 | |
November 3, 1783 | June 3, 1784 | |
November 30, 1784 | November 22, 1785 | |
November 23, 1785 | June 5, 1786 | |
June 6, 1786 | February 1, 1787 | |
February 2, 1787 | January 21, 1788 | |
January 22, 1788 | January 21, 1789 |
United States in Congress Assembled (USCA) Sessions
USCA | Session Dates | USCA Convene Date | President(s) |
First | 03-01-1781 to 11-04-1781* | 03-02-1781 | |
Second | 11-05-1781 to 11-03-1782 | 11-05-1781 | |
Third | 11-04-1782 to 11-02-1783 | 11-04-1782 | |
Fourth | 11-03-1783 to 10-31-1784 | 11-03-1783 | |
Fifth | 11-01-1784 to 11-06-1785 | 11-29-1784 | |
Sixth | 11-07-1785 to 11-05-1786 | 11-23-1785 | |
Seventh | 11-06-1786 to 11-04-1787 | 02-02-1787 | |
Eighth | 11-05-1787 to 11-02-1788 | 01-21-1788 | |
Ninth | 11-03-1788 to 03-03-1789** | None | None |
* The Articles of Confederation was ratified by the mandated 13th State on February 2, 1781, and the dated adopted by the Continental Congress to commence the new United States in Congress Assembled government was March 1, 1781. The USCA convened under the Articles of Confederation Constitution on March 2, 1781.** On September 14, 1788, the Eighth United States in Congress Assembled resolved that March 4th, 1789, would be commencement date of the Constitution of 1787's federal government thus dissolving the USCA on March 3rd, 1789.
Philadelphia | Sept. 5, 1774 to Oct. 24, 1774 | |
Philadelphia | May 10, 1775 to Dec. 12, 1776 | |
Baltimore | Dec. 20, 1776 to Feb. 27, 1777 | |
Philadelphia | March 4, 1777 to Sept. 18, 1777 | |
Lancaster | September 27, 1777 | |
York | Sept. 30, 1777 to June 27, 1778 | |
Philadelphia | July 2, 1778 to June 21, 1783 | |
Princeton | June 30, 1783 to Nov. 4, 1783 | |
Annapolis | Nov. 26, 1783 to Aug. 19, 1784 | |
Trenton | Nov. 1, 1784 to Dec. 24, 1784 | |
New York City | Jan. 11, 1785 to Nov. 13, 1788 | |
New York City | October 6, 1788 to March 3,1789 | |
New York City | March 3,1789 to August 12, 1790 | |
Philadelphia | Dec. 6,1790 to May 14, 1800 | |
Washington DC | November 17,1800 to Present |
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