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| Photograph of the Federal Hall Model on display at the Federal Hall National Memorial building, 26 Wall Street, NY, NY |
When the necessary ninth state ratified the U.S. Constitution in June 1788, the United States in Congress Assembled (USCA) under the Articles of Confederation began planning the transition to the new federal government. However, debates over where to locate the seat of government delayed the process. The delegates were divided: some argued that a more central location would symbolize a fair and impartial government, while others preferred New York City, the current seat of Congress, to ensure continuity.
On September 12, 1788, Edward Carrington and James Madison proposed an amendment to move the capital to a more central location, hoping to “prevent Jealousies in one part of the Union, of undue biass in the public councils or measures towards another part.” They reasoned that a central location would “obviate disagreeable and injurious dissensions” until a permanent federal capital could be selected, as the Constitution allowed for such a decision in the future. The amendment read:
“A motion was made by Mr [Edward] Carrington seconded by Mr [James] Madison to amend the proposition by striking out the words ‘and the present seat of Congress be the place’ and by adding ‘And whereas it is of great importance, that a government founded on the principles of conciliation and impartial regard to the Interests and accommodation of the several parts of the Union should commence in a spirit corresponding with these principles and under every circumstance calculated to prevent Jealousies in one part of the Union, of undue biass in the public councils or measures towards another part, and it is conceived that these desireable purposes will be much favored by the appointment of some place for the meeting of the new Government more central than the present seat of Congress, and which will at the same time be more likely to obviate disagreeable and injurious dissensions concerning the place most fit for the seat of federal business until a permanent seat be established as provided for by the new Constitution, Resolved that be the place for commencing proceedings under the new Constitution.’ On the question to agree to this amendment the Yeas and Nays being required by Mr [Nicholas] Gilman, So the question was lost.”1
The Carrington-Madison amendment failed to gain sufficient support, and the debate continued. Following this defeat, Mr. Dyre Kearny introduced a motion, emphasizing the urgency to proceed:
“Whereas from the great Diversity of Sentiment prevailing in Congress relative to the Place where the Said Government of the commencing of proceedings under the new Federal legislature should first convene for the transaction of the public Business. The organization of the said System of Governmt. as far as the Agency of Congress has been required thereto has met with undue procrastination by which high inconveniences must accrue to the union at large and much Dissatisfaction and Discontent derived to the Good People of the United States. And Whereas from the continued the same unhappy Cause of Delay still exists and there is but little apparent likelihood that such accommodation will result as to gain the assent of the United States in Congress Assembled to any Place for the meeting of the said Government, and whereas Nevertheless it is of the highest importance to the Welfare of the Union and that such steps be pursued by Congress as will tend as far as in their Power lies to promote the great End the measures recommended to their Attention by the late Federal Convention. Therefore Resolved That the first Wednesday etc. and that the first Wednesday in March next be the time for commencing Proceedings under the Said Constitution at Such Place as Congress shall hereafter appoint.”2
A subsequent motion, led by Kearny and seconded by Nathaniel Mitchell, aimed to cement New York City as the starting point of the new government, reaffirming that “the first Wednesday of March next be the time, and the present seat of Congress the place for commencing proceed under the new Constitution.” This motion passed, finalizing New York City as the site of the new government’s inaugural proceedings.3
With the amendment to keep New York City as the capital approved, Delaware requested a one-day postponement before a final decision. On September 13, 1788, Congress agreed and formally issued an ordinance scheduling the inaugural dates and authorizing states to organize elections for their senators, representatives, and electors for the presidency. The official resolution read:
“Whereas the Convention assembled in Philadelphia pursuant to the resolution of Congress of the 21st . of Feby 1787 did on the 17th of Sept of the same year report to the United States in Congress assembled a constitution for the people of the United States, whereupon Congress on the 28 of the same Sept did resolve unanimously ‘That the said report with the resolutions and letter accompanying the same be transmitted to the several legislatures in order to be submitted to a convention of Delegates chosen in each state by the people thereof in conformity to the resolves of the convention made and provided in that case’ And whereas the constitution so reported by the Convention and by Congress transmitted to the several legislatures has been ratified in the manner therein declared to be sufficient for the establishment of the same and such ratifications duly authenticated have been received by Congress and are filed in the Office of the Secretary therefore Resolved That the first Wednesday in Jany next be the day for appointing Electors in the several states, which before the said day shall have ratified the said constitution; that the first Wednesday in feby. next be the day for the electors to assemble in their respective states and vote for a president; and that the first Wednesday in March next be the time and the present seat of Congress the place for commencing proceedings under the said constitution.”4
On September 14, James Madison wrote to Virginia Governor Edmund Randolph to update him on the latest decisions regarding the organization of the new federal government:
“Your favor of the 3d instant would have been acknowledged two days ago, but for the approaching completion of the arrangement for the new Govt. which I wished to give you the earliest notice of. This subject has long employed Congs. and has in its progress assumed a variety of shapes, some of them not a little perplexing. The times as finally settled are Jany. for the choice of Electors, Feby. for the choice of a President, and March for the meeting of the Congress. The place, the present seat of the fedl. Govt."
Madison explained that the choice of New York as the temporary seat of the federal government had been contentious, ultimately settled only by the smaller states reluctantly conceding to the preference of the larger states:
"The last point was carried by the yielding of the smaller to the inflexibility of the greater number. I have myself been ready for bringing it to this issue for some time, perceiving that further delay, could only discredit Congs. and injure the object in view. Those who had opposed N. York along with me could not overcome their repugnance so soon. Maryland went away before the question was decided in a temper which I believe would never have yielded. Delaware was equally inflexible. Previous to our final assent a motion was made which tendered a blank for any place the majority would chuse between the North River and the Potowmac. This being rejected the alternative remaining was to agree to N. York or to strangle the Govt. in its birth. The former as the lesser evil was of course preferred and must now be made the best of.”
Madison further expressed concern about the potential consequences of this decision, fearing that New York’s selection as the seat of government could spark regional tensions, especially among the southern and western states, and could encourage an “Eastern preponderancy” that would disadvantage these regions:
“I acknowledge at the same time that I anticipate serious inconveniences from it. It will I fear be regarded as at once a proof of a preponderancy in the Eastern scale, and of a disposition to profit of that advantage. It is but just however to remark that the event is in great degree to be charged on the Southn. States which went into that scale. It will certainly entail the discussion on the new Governt, which ought if possible to be exempt from such an additional cause of ferment in its Councils. N. York will never be patiently suffered to remain even the temporary Seat of Govt. by those who will be obliged to resort to it from the Western & Southn. parts of the Union. This temporary period must continue for several years, perhaps seven or eight, and within that period all the great business of the Union will be settled.”
Madison believed the question of the capital’s location would not fade but instead resurface in future Congress sessions, with each renewal likely to come with “all the unpleasing circumstances” experienced during the initial decision-making process. Moreover, he saw the choice of New York as “fatal” to the idea of the Potomac River as the site for the permanent capital, a location he and other southern delegates had favored. He pointed out that the New Jersey legislature had even supported New York as the initial seat in the hopes that it would eventually lead to a more permanent site in Trenton. This choice, Madison noted, would likely favor sites along the Susquehanna or Delaware, ultimately diminishing the chance of the Potomac’s selection:
“In the last place, I consider the decision in favor of N. York as in a manner fatal to the just pretensions of the Potowmac to the permanent Seat of the Govt. This is unquestionably the light in which many of the advocates for N. York view the matter. The Legislature of N. Jersey which lately met approved of the part taken by her delegates on the principle that the first meeting of the Govt. at N. York would give the best possible chance for an early choice of the permanent Seat, as this would do, for a preference of Trenton. As the case now stands, the Susquehanna is probably the most that can be hoped for, with no small danger of being stopped on the Delaware. Had any place South of the Delaware been obtained, the Susquehannah at least would have been secured with a favorable chance for the Potowmac.”
Madison also noted a recent meeting in Harrisburg to discuss potential capital locations, reporting that it had not garnered the level of support its backers had hoped for:
“The result of the Meeting at Harrisburg is I am told in the press & will of course be soon before the public. I am not acquainted with the particulars, or indeed with the general complexion of it. It has been said here that the meeting was so thin as to disappoint much the patrons of the scheme” (Smith, Paul H., et al., eds. Letters of Delegates to Congress, 1774-1789 - Madison to Randolph 09-14-1788).
Madison’s letter to Randolph conveys the complexities, regional tensions, and strategic maneuvering that shaped the initial decisions of the federal government. His observations offer insight into the early efforts to balance sectional interests and regional representation, foreshadowing debates that would continue well into the establishment of Washington, D.C., as the nation’s capital.
Nevertheless, the New York resolution set a clear course for the transition to the new government. It established January 7, 1789, as the date for appointing electors, February 4 for the electors to vote for the president, and March 4 for the formal commencement of the new government at the New York Congress seat.
The decision to keep the federal capital in New York City, led to an arrangement with Mayor James Duane and the New York City Council. Under this agreement, the city would renovate its colonial City Hall to host the new federal Congress, ensuring a suitable space for the new government to convene under the Constitution of 1787.
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National Collegiate Honor’s Council Partners in the Park Independence Hall Class of 2017 students at Federal Hall National Historic Park with Ranger holding the 1789 Acts of Congress opened to the 12 Amendment Joint Resolution of Congress issued September 25th, 1789. Cintly is holding an Arthur St. Clair signed Northwest Territory document, Imani is holding the First Congress Act establishing the U.S. Department of State and Rachael is holding a 1788 John Jay letter as U.S. Foreign Secretary sent to the Governor of Connecticut transmitting a treaty with France. - For More information please visit NCHCPartners in the Park 2017 |
To fulfill the promise of a renovated capital, New York City engaged Pierre L'Enfant, a respected architect and engineer, to remodel the existing City Hall. When completed, this building would be renamed Federal Hall. However, the construction posed a significant disruption to congressional business, necessitating temporary accommodations. By September 30, 1788, the USCA recognized the need to identify an alternative meeting location.
On October 1, Massachusetts Delegate George Thatcher informed his wife, Sarah, of the developing situation:
"I told you there was an addition going to be made to the Building Congress now sets in. Twenty or thirty people are daily to work upon this; and the house we now set in must, immediately be unroofed---; And Congress must of course adjourn to some other house for the present. There is none where they can be very well accommodated, And I should not wonder if an adjournment without day should take place. If this should be the case you may look for me some time in this month."5
The noise and inconvenience of construction soon became unbearable, compelling Congress to formally consider alternate locations. The USCA Journals document that on October 2, 1788, Congress received a report from a committee consisting of delegates Thomas Tudor Tucker, John Parker, and Abraham Clark, which responded to a letter from Mayor Duane regarding the state of the building:
"The committee consisting of Mr. [Thomas Tudor] Tucker, Mr. [John] Parker, and Mr. [Abraham] Clark to whom was referred a letter from the Mayor of the city of New York to the Delegates having reported, That it appears from the letter referred to them, that the repairs and alterations intended to be made in the buildings in which Congress at present Assemble, will render it highly inconvenient for them to continue business therein, that it will therefore be necessary to provide some other place for their accommodation, the committee having made enquiry find no place more proper for this purpose than the two Apartments now appropriated for the Office of foreign Affairs. They therefore recommend that the said Apartments be immediately prepared for the reception of Congress and the papers of the Secretary. Resolved, that Congress agree to the said report."6
Thatcher shared further details with Nathan Dane, noting the urgency:
"The new Building is going on with spirit. Congress has this day adjourned till Monday, & then to meet in the rooms where Mr. Jay kept his office. This had become necessary, as the Old Hall and Court Room are to be new modled; And the workman made such a continual noise that it was impossible to hear one another speek. I should not wonder if by middle of next week Congress were to adjourn without day. Many are uneasy and are for going home."7
Finally, on October 6, 1788, the USCA vacated the colonial City Hall, and six states convened in the Department of Foreign Affairs' offices. The USCA Journals record:
"Six States assembled namely Massachusetts, Connecticut, Pennsylvania, Virginia, North Carolina and South Carolina, and from New Hampshire Mr [Nicholas] Gilman from Rhode Island Mr [Peleg] Arnold, from New York Mr [Leonard] Gansevoort, from Delaware Mr [Dyre] Kearny, and from Maryland Mr [Benjamin] Contee."8
However, with only six states present, the assembly failed to meet the quorum requirement of seven states, prompting another adjournment.
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National Collegiate Honor’s Council Partners in the Park Independence Hall Class of 2017 students at Federal Hall National Historic Park with NPS Ranger holding the American Museum printing of Alexander Hamilton's Federalist One. - For More information please visit NCHCPartners in the Park 2017 |
To support L’Enfant’s vision, New York’s leaders undertook an ambitious expansion of the existing congressional building. They tripled its size and rebranded it as Federal Hall, a grand gesture aimed at solidifying New York’s role as the political heart of the nation. This expanded structure was not only functional but also symbolic, representing New York’s commitment to accommodating and supporting the federal government.
L’Enfant’s design for Federal Hall incorporated elements of neoclassical architecture inspired by European design, blending these influences with an emerging American aesthetic. This style would later become known as Federal Style, characterized by its clean lines, symmetry, and restrained ornamentation. Federal Hall’s architectural design made it the first major example of Federal Style architecture in the United States, setting a precedent for public buildings and reflecting the democratic ideals of the new republic.
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“View of the Federal Edifice in New York.” Massachusetts Magazine, [vol. I, no. VI], Boston: June 1789 - courtesy of the New York Historical Society Collection |
The southern front, towards broad-ferret, is composed of a plain arched basement, which likewise bounds the East and West sides of the building, and forms a flagged walk for the recreation and convenience of the citizens.Over the basement are Tuscan columns, supporting Darrick pillars, which form a grand balcony with a handform entablature of stairs, etc. etc.The attic story is composed of ornamental figures, festoons and trophies crowned with a pediment, on which a large eagle, surrounded with a glory, appears bursting from a cloud, and carrying thirteen arrows and the arms of the United States. A small, though elegant spire, finishes this division of the edifice.After entering the building through any part of the arched walk, we came to a second spacious hall of area, which runs up to the roof, and is roosted by a glass cupola, throwing a strong light down on the lobby, which is on the first floor, running quite round this center area, and communicating with the Senate-Chamber, Salloon, Audience and Anti-chambers.The Senate-chamber is about 40 feet square and 15 in height, with convenient fire-places, and is neatly wainscoted; the ceiling plain, except the sun and thirteen stars in the centre. The Salloon, Audience chamber, etc.. are all equally well contrived, as are the stairs, which lead in them and to the two galleries, erected in the Representative's chamber, for spectators.The Representatives apartment, which is the master piece of the whole, and most entitled to the name of Federal-Hall; is an oblong room, endosome - what octagonal, in all 70 by 60 feet. This room comprehends two stairs, a basement and a principal; the basement contains four fire places with oval windows placed alternately between each. The principal has 6 large windows, 3 to the East, and 3 to the West, with semicircular pediments. Several Ionick columns and pilasters, fluted and otherwise decorated, are properly arranged throughout this room. On the South side the two galleries one over the other, for spectators have a fine effect -- and at the North end is the President's chair with a very large table, projecting into the centre of the room, around which are the seats for the 59 Representatives. On the wainscot of the North end are several trophies and other emblematical fancy-figures, together with the arms of the United States; but as they are not yet completed, is not in our power to give an adequate description of them.The whole composition is mostly admirably contrived for the purpose for which it is intended. It is an object which indicates that something more considerable would have been executed, had not the artist been confined to such narrow limits. The style is bold, simple and regular; the parts few, large and distinct; the transition sudden, and strongly marked and we think the whole has an air of grandeur
… came richly laden with historical associations, having hosted John Peter Zenger’s trial in 1735, the Stamp Act Congress of 1765 and the Confederation Congress from 1785 to 1788. Starting in September 1788, the French engineer Pierre-Charles L’Enfant had remodeled it into Federal Hall, a suitable home for Congress. L’Enfant introduced a covered arcade at street level and a balcony surmounted by a triangular pediment on the second story. As the people’s chamber, the House of Representatives was accessible to the public, situated in a high-ceilinged octagonal room on the ground floor, while the Senate met in a second-floor room on the Wall Street side, buffering it from popular pressure. From this room Washington would emerge onto the balcony to take the oath of office. In many ways, the first inauguration was a hasty, slapdash affair. As with all theatrical spectacles, rushed preparations and frantic work on the new building continued until a few days before the event. Nervous anticipation spread through the city as to whether the 200 workmen would complete the project on time. Only a few days before the inauguration, an eagle was hoisted onto the pediment, completing the building. The final effect was stately: a white building with a blue and white cupola topped by a weather vane. (Ron Chernow, George Washington: The Reluctant President, Smithsonian magazine, February 2011)
I was on the roof of the first house in Broad Street … and so near to Washington that I could almost hear him speak. The windows and roofs of the houses were crowded; and in the streets the throng was so dense, that it seemed as if one might literally walk on the heads of the people. The balcony of the hall was in full view of this assembled multitude. In the centre of it was placed a table, with a rich covering of red velvet; and upon this, on a crimson velvet cushion, lay a large and elegant Bible. … All eyes were fixed upon the balcony; where, at the appointed hour, Washington entered, accompanied by the Chancellor of the State of New York, who was to administer the oath; by John Adams, the Vice-President; Governor Clinton; and many other distinguished men. … His appearance was most solemn and dignified. Advancing to the front of the balcony, he laid his hand on his heart, bowed several times, and then retired to an arm-chair near the table. The populace appeared to understand that the scene had overcome him, and were at once hushed in profound silence. After a few moments, Washington arose, and came forward. Chancellor Livingston read the oath according to the form prescribed by the Constitution; and Washington repeated it, resting his hand upon the Bible. Mr. Otis, the Secretary of the Senate, then took the Bible to raise it to the lips of Washington; who stooped, and kissed the book. At this moment, a signal was given, by raising a flag upon the cupola of the Hall, for a general discharge of the artillery of the Battery. All the bells in the city rang out a peal of joy, and the assembled multitude sent forth a universal shout. The President again bowed to the people, and then retired from a scene such as the proudest monarch never enjoyed. Many entertainments were given, both public and private; and the city was illuminated in the evening. (Eliza Susan Quincy, Memoir of the life of Eliza S.M. Quincy, Wilson and Son, Boston, 1861, page 52)
Once sworn in, Washington, along with Vice President John Adams and members of Congress, retired to the Senate Chamber, where Washington delivered his inaugural address, drafted by James Madison.
In his speech, Washington expressed a profound sense of humility and hesitation in accepting the presidency. He acknowledged the sacrifices and public responsibility the role required, confessing personal reservations about his fitness for office. Reflecting on his “frequent interruptions in health” and his inexperience in civil administration, he candidly described his intellectual limitations as “inheriting inferior endowments from nature.” Washington’s words revealed his deep sense of duty to the fledgling nation while reinforcing his commitment to serve with humility and integrity.
In a notable aspect of his address, Washington refrained from asserting presidential authority over Congress. Instead, he honored the legislative branch’s autonomy, leaving Congress “to recommend to your consideration, such measures as he shall judge necessary and expedient.” He limited his suggestions to one key issue: he urged Congress to consider the amendments proposed by various state conventions during the ratification process. These amendments would soon culminate in the Bill of Rights, underscoring Washington’s commitment to honoring the voice of the people and the rights enshrined within the Constitution.
This inaugural address set a tone of cautious optimism, modesty, and a respect for democratic principles, reflecting Washington’s awareness of the responsibilities he now bore as the leader of a new republic. His words served as an early foundation for the role of the president, one marked by humility and deference to the Constitutional authority of Congress, and his leadership became a model for the exercise of executive power in service of the collective welfare.
- On June 1, 1789, the United States Congress passed its first law under the newly ratified U.S. Constitution, titled "An Act to regulate the Time and Manner of administering certain Oaths." This landmark legislation, signed into law by President George Washington, established the protocols for administering oaths of office to government officials, ensuring their allegiance to the Constitution. Remarkably, portions of this foundational law remain in effect today, serving as a testament to the enduring principles established during the formative days of the republic;
- On July 4, 1789, Congress passed "An Act for laying a Duty on Goods, Wares, and Merchandises imported into the United States." This legislation marked a critical step in solidifying the financial foundation of the newly formed federal government. It established a tariff on imported goods as a reliable source of revenue, ensuring the government’s ability to fund its operations. Additionally, the act was designed to protect domestic manufacturing by discouraging reliance on foreign imports, laying the groundwork for economic independence and industrial growth in the fledgling republic.
- On July 20, 1789, Congress enacted "An Act imposing Duties on Tonnage," which established a range of duties based on the tonnage of ships and vessels entering U.S. ports from foreign nations. This law served multiple purposes: it generated revenue for the federal government, encouraged the use of American-owned and -built ships by imposing lower rates on them, and regulated foreign shipping. By favoring domestic vessels, the act sought to promote the growth of the American merchant marine industry while ensuring the country's economic interests were safeguarded in international trade.
On July 27, 1789, Congress passed "An Act for Establishing an Executive Department, to be Denominated the Department of Foreign Affairs," officially creating the nation's first executive department under the Constitution. John Jay, who had served as Secretary of Foreign Affairs under the Articles of Confederation, declined reappointment but agreed to serve as Acting Secretary until a formal Presidential appointee was confirmed.
The passage of this legislation ignited a pivotal debate regarding the President's authority to remove the Secretary of Foreign Affairs. One faction argued that the Constitution vested the President with the exclusive power to remove executive officials as part of the general executive powers. The opposing faction maintained that such removals should require the joint consent of the Senate, emphasizing the Senate's role in confirming appointments.
Congress ultimately resolved the issue in favor of the President, affirming that the heads of executive departments were subject to removal solely at the President's discretion. This decision established a foundational precedent, reinforcing the independence of the executive branch in managing its affairs and setting a lasting interpretation of constitutional executive power.
On July 31, 1789, Congress passed "An Act to regulate the Collection of the Duties imposed by law on the tonnage of ships or vessels, and on goods, wares and merchandises imported into the United States." This legislation established designated ports of entry in each of the eleven states that had ratified the Constitution, where customs duties would be collected. It aimed to standardize the collection of tariffs, ensuring the federal government could effectively generate revenue and enforce trade regulations.
Notably, the act addressed the unique status of North Carolina and Rhode Island, which had not yet ratified the Constitution. Goods imported from these states were treated as though they originated from foreign countries, subject to the same duties, seizures, and forfeitures as imports from outside the United States. The law stipulated:
"All goods, wares and merchandise not of their own growth or manufacture, which shall be imported from either of the said two States of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations, or North Carolina, into any other port or place within the limits of the United States, as settled by the late treaty of peace, shall be subject to the like duties, seizures and forfeitures, as goods, wares or merchandise imported from any State or country without the said limits."
This provision underscored the federal government's authority under the Constitution while incentivizing these states to ratify and fully integrate into the Union.
On August 5, 1789, Congress enacted "An Act for settling the Accounts between the United States and individual States." This legislation aimed to address the complex financial obligations and reimbursements stemming from the Revolutionary War and the Articles of Confederation era. It authorized the appointment and payment of commissioners to implement the provisions of the May 7, 1787, ordinance and related resolutions passed by the Continental Congress (USCA).
The act sought to carry into effect the earlier efforts to resolve financial imbalances between the federal government and the individual states, ensuring equitable settlement of debts and expenditures. The law provided for the systematic review of claims and the allocation of funds, marking a significant step in establishing fiscal accountability and strengthening the financial foundation of the newly formed federal government. This process was vital for maintaining trust between the states and the central authority during the early years of the republic.
On August 7, 1789, Congress passed "An Act to establish an Executive Department, to be denominated the Department of War." This act formalized the creation of the Department of War to oversee all military affairs of the United States. President George Washington reappointed Henry Knox, who had served as Secretary of War under the Articles of Confederation, to continue in this role. Knox’s appointment was subsequently confirmed by the U.S. Senate.
Initially, the Department of War managed the nation's land and naval forces. However, in 1798, Congress created a separate Navy Department to address the growing need for specialized naval administration. The Department of War continued to handle the Army’s operations until significant changes were made in the 20th century.
The reorganization of military structure came with the passage of the National Security Act of 1947, which established distinct departments for the Army, Navy, and the newly formed Air Force. This act also created the National Military Establishment, which was renamed the Department of Defense in 1949. The Department of Defense consolidated the administration of all three military branches, establishing a unified command structure that remains in place today.
On August 7, 1789, Congress passed "An Act to provide for the Government of the Territory Northwest of the river Ohio." This legislation re-enacted the Northwest Ordinance originally passed by the Continental Congress (USCA) in July 1787, ensuring its provisions were consistent with the newly ratified Constitution. The act stated that for the ordinance to remain fully effective, certain adaptations were necessary to align it with the structure and authority of the new federal government.
The Northwest Ordinance was a foundational document for the governance of the Northwest Territory, establishing a framework for territorial administration, settlers' rights, and the process of admitting new states to the Union. It also set important precedents, such as the prohibition of slavery in the territory.
President George Washington reappointed Arthur St. Clair, who had previously served as Governor of the Northwest Territory under the Articles of Confederation. St. Clair's reappointment was confirmed by the Senate, ensuring continuity of leadership during this transitional period. This act underscored the federal government's commitment to orderly expansion and the integration of new territories into the United States under the Constitution.
On August 20, 1789, Congress passed "An Act providing for the Expenses which may attend Negotiations or Treaties with the Indian Tribes, and the appointment of Commissioners for managing the same." This legislation authorized the allocation of funds to support diplomatic efforts and treaty negotiations with Native American tribes. It also provided for the appointment of commissioners tasked with managing these negotiations on behalf of the federal government.
The act reflected the early government's recognition of the importance of establishing formal relations with Native American tribes, particularly in territories west of the original states. These treaties often addressed issues such as land cessions, trade agreements, and the maintenance of peace, laying the groundwork for the federal government’s policy of treaty-making with Native nations. This act demonstrated the federal commitment to engaging in structured negotiations as part of its broader effort to manage relations with Indigenous peoples and expand its territorial control.;On September 1, 1789, Congress passed "An Act for Registering and Clearing Vessels, Regulating the Coasting Trade, and for other purposes." This legislation established a framework for the licensing, registration, and enrollment of vessels engaged in navigation and trade within the United States. The act aimed to standardize maritime commerce, promote domestic shipping, and ensure compliance with federal laws governing trade and navigation.
By regulating the coasting trade, the act facilitated the efficient movement of goods along the U.S. coastline while providing safeguards against smuggling and unauthorized activities. It also incentivized the use of American-owned and -built vessels by conferring certain privileges, fostering the growth of the domestic maritime industry. This act was a critical step in strengthening the economic infrastructure of the new republic and asserting federal authority over maritime commerce.
On September 2, 1789, Congress passed "An Act to establish the Treasury Department," formally creating the department responsible for managing the financial affairs of the United States. The act delineated the responsibilities of key officials, including the Secretary of the Treasury, Comptroller, Auditor, Treasurer, Register, and Assistant to the Secretary. These roles collectively ensured the efficient administration of revenue collection, public accounts, and federal disbursements.
The legislation included strict ethical provisions, prohibiting those appointed under the act from engaging in specific business transactions that could lead to conflicts of interest. It prescribed penalties for violations, including the forfeiture of half the fine to any individual whose information led to a conviction, provided that individual was not a public prosecutor.
Alexander Hamilton was appointed as the first Secretary of the Treasury by President George Washington and was confirmed by the Senate on the same day. Hamilton's leadership would prove instrumental in shaping the financial policies of the new republic, including the establishment of a national bank and a plan to address Revolutionary War debts, solidifying the Treasury Department's critical role in the federal government.
On September 11, 1789, Congress passed "An Act for establishing the Salaries of the Executive Officers of Government, with their Assistants and Clerks." This legislation set the compensation for the President, Vice President, and other executive officials, as well as their assistants and clerks, establishing a financial framework for the operation of the federal executive branch.
By formalizing salaries, the act ensured the government could attract and retain qualified individuals to administer the new republic. This measure was an essential step in creating a stable and professional federal administration, reflecting the need for fair compensation while also being mindful of the limited resources of the fledgling government. It laid the groundwork for a structured and accountable federal workforce in the early days of the United States.
On September 15, 1789, Congress passed "An Act to provide for the safe-keeping of the Acts, Records and Seal of the United States, and for other purposes." This law marked a significant transformation of the Department of Foreign Affairs, renaming it the Department of State and expanding its responsibilities to include several domestic duties beyond foreign relations. These duties included:
- Receiving, publishing, distributing, and preserving the laws of the United States.
- Preparing, sealing, and recording commissions for Presidential appointees.
- Preparing and authenticating copies of records under the Department's seal.
- Maintaining custody of the Great Seal of the United States.
- Retaining the records of the former Secretary of the Continental Congress, except for those pertaining to the Treasury and War Departments.
President George Washington appointed Thomas Jefferson as the first Secretary of State on September 25, 1789, and Jefferson was confirmed by the Senate the following day. However, until Jefferson returned from France, Chief Justice John Jay temporarily served as Acting Secretary of State.
Over time, the Department of State took on additional domestic responsibilities, including issuing patents, managing copyrights, publishing census returns, overseeing the mint, and regulating immigration. These expanded roles solidified the department’s position as a cornerstone of the federal government, with duties that encompassed both foreign diplomacy and essential domestic administration.
On September 22, 1789, Congress passed "An Act for the temporary establishment of the Post-Office," laying the groundwork for the nation's postal system under the newly ratified Constitution. The act provided for the appointment of a Postmaster General and stated that the powers, salary, and compensation for the Postmaster General, as well as those for assistants, clerks, and deputies, would remain as they had been under the resolutions and ordinances of the Continental Congress.
Samuel Osgood was appointed as the first Postmaster General under the Constitution by President George Washington on September 26, 1789. The U.S. Senate confirmed his appointment the following day. This temporary measure ensured continuity of the postal service, which was critical for communication across the young nation. It also set the stage for the development of a permanent and more extensive postal system in the years to come, recognizing the vital role of mail delivery in uniting the states and supporting commerce and governance.
On September 22, 1789, Congress passed "An Act for allowing Compensation to the Members of the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States, and to the Officers of both Houses." This legislation marked a departure from the practices under the Continental Congress (USCA), where members were compensated by their respective states. Under the new act, congressmen received a daily wage of $6.00, paid directly from the federal treasury, reflecting the centralized financial authority of the new government.
This shift was significant in standardizing compensation for legislators, ensuring they were fairly paid regardless of their state of origin. It also underscored the federal government’s growing independence and ability to fund its operations under the Constitution, strengthening the unity and efficiency of the legislative branch. This new system of federal compensation laid the groundwork for the professionalization of Congress and its members' roles in governance
On September 23, 1789, Congress passed "An Act for allowing certain Compensation to the Judges of the Supreme and other Courts, and to the Attorney General of the United States." This legislation established the salaries for federal judicial officials and the Attorney General, marking an important step in organizing the judiciary under the newly ratified Constitution.
The salaries were set as follows:
- The Chief Justice of the Supreme Court received $4,000 annually.
- Associate Justices of the Supreme Court were paid $3,500 annually.
- Federal District Judges' salaries varied, with the Delaware Federal District Judge receiving $800 annually.
- The Attorney General of the United States was allocated an annual salary of $1,500.
This act ensured fair and consistent compensation for key legal and judicial officials, reflecting the importance of an independent and well-supported judiciary in the framework of the new government. By providing federal salaries, the act reinforced the principle of separation of powers and the commitment to a strong and impartial legal system.
On September 24, 1789, Congress passed "An Act for allowing a compensation to the President and Vice President of the United States," establishing the official salaries for the nation’s top executive offices. The President's annual salary was set at $25,000, and the Vice President’s at $5,000.
These amounts were intended to provide sufficient compensation for the responsibilities and stature of these positions while reflecting the financial capabilities of the young federal government. The act underscored the importance of financially supporting the executive leadership to ensure they could perform their duties without undue economic concerns, further stabilizing the structure of the newly formed government under the Constitution.
On September 24, 1789, Congress passed the Judiciary Act of 1789, a landmark piece of legislation that formally established the structure of the U.S. federal court system. While the U.S. Constitution provided only a broad framework for the judiciary, this act laid out the specific organization and jurisdiction of the federal courts.
The Judiciary Act created a three-tiered judiciary composed of:
- District Courts, serving as trial courts for federal cases in each state.
- Circuit Courts, which acted as intermediate appellate courts.
- The Supreme Court, consisting of a Chief Justice and five Associate Justices, serving as the highest court in the nation.
The act also delineated the jurisdiction of each court level and provided for the Supreme Court's power to review decisions from state courts when federal issues were involved, thus reinforcing federal authority.
On the same day, President George Washington appointed John Jay as the first U.S. Chief Justice and Edmond Randolph as the first Attorney General of the United States. Both nominations were confirmed by the Senate on September 26, 1789. This act was foundational in shaping the judiciary’s role as a co-equal branch of government and establishing the legal framework that continues to underpin the federal court system today.
On September 25, 1789, Congress formally proposed the Bill of Rights, a set of amendments to the U.S. Constitution designed to protect individual liberties and limit the power of the federal government. Introduced by James Madison as a series of legislative articles, these amendments were adopted by the House of Representatives on August 21, 1789, and then submitted as a joint resolution of Congress on September 25, 1789. The amendments became effective as part of the Constitution on December 15, 1791, after ratification by three-fourths of the states.
Originally, Congress proposed twelve amendments:
- Ten of these were ratified by the states and became the first ten amendments to the Constitution, collectively known as the Bill of Rights.
- One of the remaining two amendments, Article the Second dealing with Congressional pay raises, was ratified much later, in 1992, as the Twenty-seventh Amendment.
- The other, Article the First concerning the size of the House of Representatives, technically remains pending before the states.
The Bill of Rights addressed concerns raised during the ratification debates, ensuring protections for freedoms such as speech, religion, and assembly, as well as safeguards against governmental overreach. These amendments have since become a cornerstone of American democracy and a model for the protection of human rights worldwide.
On September 29, 1789, Congress passed "An Act to regulate Processes in the Courts of the United States," which established procedures for the federal judiciary to carry out its functions effectively. The act authorized U.S. courts to issue writs of execution and other writs necessary for enforcing judgments and carrying out judicial orders.
This legislation was essential for defining the practical operations of the newly established federal court system under the Judiciary Act of 1789, ensuring that the courts had the tools needed to enforce their decisions. By standardizing the issuance of writs and legal processes, the act contributed to the development of a uniform and functional judiciary that could uphold the rule of law across the United States.
On September 29, 1789, Congress passed "An Act making Appropriations for the Service of the present year," which allocated funds for various government expenditures. The bill provided for the following appropriations:
- $216,000 for defraying the expenses of the civil list, covering the costs associated with both the late and present governments.
- $137,000 for the expenses of the Department of War.
- $190,000 for discharging the warrants issued by the late Board of Treasury, which had remained unsatisfied.
- $96,000 for paying pensions to invalids, specifically those who were disabled as a result of their service in the Revolutionary War.
This act was crucial for ensuring the continued functioning of the federal government, covering essential expenses as the United States transitioned from the Articles of Confederation to the newly established constitutional framework. It demonstrated the government’s commitment to fulfilling its financial obligations, including those related to veterans and military expenses.
On September 29, 1789, Congress passed "An Act providing for the payment of the Invalid Pensioners of the United States," ensuring federal support for military veterans disabled during the Revolutionary War. The act stipulated:
"That the military pensions which have been granted and paid by the states respectively, in pursuance of the acts of the United States in Congress assembled, to the invalids who were wounded and disabled during the late war, shall be continued and paid by the United States, from the fourth day of March last, for the space of one year, under such regulations as the President of the United States may direct."
This legislation marked a transition from state-funded pensions to federal responsibility, reflecting the centralization of authority under the newly ratified Constitution. By assuming the obligation to pay these pensions, the federal government acknowledged the sacrifices of veterans and demonstrated its commitment to providing for those who had been wounded in service to the nation. It also established a precedent for federal support of military invalids, an important step in the development of veteran care in the United States
On September 29, 1789, Congress passed "An Act to recognize and adapt the Constitution of the United States the establishment of the Troops raised under the Resolves of the United States in Congress assembled, and for other purposes therein mentioned." This legislation formalized the transition of military forces established under the Articles of Confederation to the framework of the newly ratified Constitution. The act specified:
"That the establishment contained in the resolve of the late Congress of the third day of October, one thousand seven hundred and eighty-seven, except as to the mode of appointing the officers, and also as is herein after provided, be, and the same is hereby recognized to be the establishment for the troops in the service of the United States."
This measure ensured continuity in the structure and operations of the U.S. military, while adapting the processes for officer appointments to align with the constitutional authority of the President and Congress. It reinforced federal control over the armed forces and provided a legal foundation for the continued organization and maintenance of the military under the new government. This act highlighted the federal government’s commitment to national defense and its recognition of the military’s critical role in securing the republic’s stability and sovereignty
On September 29, 1789, Congress passed "An Act to alter the Time for the Next Meeting of Congress," which formally adjourned the 1st Federal Bicameral Congress until January 5, 1790. This act allowed Congress to conclude its inaugural session and provided time for members to return to their states to address local matters, prepare for the upcoming session, and consult with constituents.
The decision to reconvene in early 1790 reflected the logistical and travel challenges of the era, as well as the need for deliberation on pressing national issues during the intervening months. This adjournment marked the conclusion of a historic legislative session during which foundational laws and structures of the United States government under the Constitution were established
The 1789 session of the First Congress was historically significant for its work on amending the U.S. Constitution of 1787. One of the most pressing issues Congress faced was addressing the extensive list of amendments proposed by the states during the Constitution's ratification process. Over 200 proposed amendments were submitted, reflecting widespread concerns about the balance of power and the protection of individual rights.
After eliminating duplications, the number was reduced to nearly 90 proposals, many of which called for a reorganization of the federal government’s structure. James Madison, a key architect of the Constitution, played a pivotal role in persuading his colleagues to prioritize these amendments despite their initial reluctance. His efforts led to the introduction of 17 amendments in the House of Representatives, which sought to address concerns about personal liberties and government overreach.
Through debate and revision, Congress ultimately reduced these to 12 amendments, which were sent to the states for ratification in September 1789. By December 15, 1791, ten of these amendments were ratified, becoming what we now know as the Bill of Rights. These amendments, including guarantees of freedom of speech, religion, and due process, remain a cornerstone of American democracy and a testament to the ability of the Constitution to evolve through deliberate, collaborative efforts.
For students and teachers of U.S. history, this video features Stanley and Christopher Klos presenting America's Four United Republics Curriculum at the University of Pennsylvania's Wharton School. Filmed in December 2015, this video is an informal recording by an audience member capturing a presentation attended by approximately 200 students, professors, and guests. To explore the full curriculum, [download it here].
September 5, 1774 | October 22, 1774 | |
October 22, 1774 | October 26, 1774 | |
May 20, 1775 | May 24, 1775 | |
May 25, 1775 | July 1, 1776 |
July 2, 1776 to February 28, 1781
July 2, 1776 | October 29, 1777 | |
November 1, 1777 | December 9, 1778 | |
December 10, 1778 | September 28, 1779 | |
September 29, 1779 | February 28, 1781 |
March 1, 1781 to March 3, 1789
March 1, 1781 | July 6, 1781 | |
July 10, 1781 | Declined Office | |
July 10, 1781 | November 4, 1781 | |
November 5, 1781 | November 3, 1782 | |
November 4, 1782 | November 2, 1783 | |
November 3, 1783 | June 3, 1784 | |
November 30, 1784 | November 22, 1785 | |
November 23, 1785 | June 5, 1786 | |
June 6, 1786 | February 1, 1787 | |
February 2, 1787 | January 21, 1788 | |
January 22, 1788 | January 21, 1789 |
United States in Congress Assembled (USCA) Sessions
USCA | Session Dates | USCA Convene Date | President(s) |
First | 03-01-1781 to 11-04-1781* | 03-02-1781 | |
Second | 11-05-1781 to 11-03-1782 | 11-05-1781 | |
Third | 11-04-1782 to 11-02-1783 | 11-04-1782 | |
Fourth | 11-03-1783 to 10-31-1784 | 11-03-1783 | |
Fifth | 11-01-1784 to 11-06-1785 | 11-29-1784 | |
Sixth | 11-07-1785 to 11-05-1786 | 11-23-1785 | |
Seventh | 11-06-1786 to 11-04-1787 | 02-02-1787 | |
Eighth | 11-05-1787 to 11-02-1788 | 01-21-1788 | |
Ninth | 11-03-1788 to 03-03-1789** | None | None |
* The Articles of Confederation was ratified by the mandated 13th State on February 2, 1781, and the dated adopted by the Continental Congress to commence the new United States in Congress Assembled government was March 1, 1781. The USCA convened under the Articles of Confederation Constitution on March 2, 1781.** On September 14, 1788, the Eighth United States in Congress Assembled resolved that March 4th, 1789, would be commencement date of the Constitution of 1787's federal government thus dissolving the USCA on March 3rd, 1789.
Philadelphia | Sept. 5, 1774 to Oct. 24, 1774 | |
Philadelphia | May 10, 1775 to Dec. 12, 1776 | |
Baltimore | Dec. 20, 1776 to Feb. 27, 1777 | |
Philadelphia | March 4, 1777 to Sept. 18, 1777 | |
Lancaster | September 27, 1777 | |
York | Sept. 30, 1777 to June 27, 1778 | |
Philadelphia | July 2, 1778 to June 21, 1783 | |
Princeton | June 30, 1783 to Nov. 4, 1783 | |
Annapolis | Nov. 26, 1783 to Aug. 19, 1784 | |
Trenton | Nov. 1, 1784 to Dec. 24, 1784 | |
New York City | Jan. 11, 1785 to Nov. 13, 1788 | |
New York City | October 6, 1788 to March 3,1789 | |
New York City | March 3,1789 to August 12, 1790 | |
Philadelphia | Dec. 6,1790 to May 14, 1800 | |
Washington DC | November 17,1800 to Present |
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